The Genus Homo

The increase in brain size and decrease in jaw and tooth size are associated with the first appearance of the genus Homo; the archeological evidence of a shift in subsistence patterns is often assumed to be associated with behaviors unique to Homo, although this point remains to be definitely demonstrated. The taxonomic interpretation of early Homo fossils were considered contentious when they were first found, and in many ways it remains so today.The first discoveries of early Homo fossils were made at Olduvai Gorge, not long after Mary Leakey had found Zinj (now Australopithecus boisei) and Louis Leakey pronounced it to be the maker of gorge’s stone tools. Between 1960 and 1963, a series of fossils was uncovered close to the Zinj site, including hand and foot bones, a lower jaw, and parts of the top of the cranium (Wilford, 2007).There are very strict rules of convention that must be followed when a scientist names a new species of an existing genus. These involve a careful description of the new specimen to show how the animal fits in with the definition of the genus (in this case Homo) and how it differs from other closely related species. The naming of a new species of hominid has always been likely to touch off a good deal of lively discussion within the profession, so Leakey was certainly guaranteed that much. But the fact that at the same time he had to adjust the definition of the genus Homo in order to accommodate his new species transformed what might have been properly scholarly jousting into near outrage.Previous diagnoses of Homo had focused on the so-called cerebral rubicon: a hominid had to exceed brain size in order to be judged worthy of full manhood. The trouble was that different authorities put the threshold at different levels.The diagnosis offered by Leakey and his colleagues was more comprehensive, and included habitual bipedal posture and gait, a precision grip, and a brain capacity much smaller than previously proposed (Line, 20 05; Wilford, 2007).References:Line, P. (2005). Fossil Evidence for Alleged Apemen – Part 1: The Genus Homo [Electronic Version]. Creation Ministries International. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4450/.Wilford, J. N. (2007). Lost in a Million – Year Gap, Solid Clues to Human Origins [Electronic Version]. The New York Times. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/18/science/18evol.html?_r=1&ref=science&oref=slogin.

Enhancing the Quality of Education in the Philippines Essay

Enhancing the quality of basic education in the Philippines is urgent and critical. Due to that, one of the discussions of DepEd which incurred last October 2010 is to enhance the basic education program of the country in a manner that is least disruptive to the current curriculum, most affordable to government and families, and aligned with international practice through the K-12 policy. The poor quality of basic education is reflected in the low achievement scores of Filipino students. Many students who finish basic education do not possess sufficient mastery of basic competencies. One reason is that students do not get adequate instructional time or time on task. This quality of education is reflected in the inadequate preparation of high school graduates for the world of work or entrepreneurship or higher education. High school graduates also do not possess the basic competencies or emotional maturity essential for the world of work. 1 While the availability of economic opportunities contributes to this, it also illustrates the mismatch in the labor and education markets. The World Bank Philippines Skills Report in 2009 reveals, based on a survey of employers, serious gaps in critical skills of graduates such as problem-solving, initiative and creativity, and, to a lesser extent, gaps in job specific technical skills. The enhanced K-12 program, or the Department of Education’s (DepEd) proposal to overhaul the basic and secondary education curriculum by adding two more years to the system is arguably one of the most drastic and controversial programs of the Aquino administration. The program is proposed to start in school year 2012-2013 for Grade 1 and first year high school students with the target of full implementation by SY 2018-2019. According to SEAMEO Innotech 2011, which is considered as the preferred education solutions provider in Southeast Asia and also an ISO 9001: 2008 Certified, the Philippine is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries in the world with a 10-year pre-university program. The K-12 model to be implemented in the country is an educational system for basic and secondary education patterned after the United States, Canada, and some parts of Australia. The current basic education system is also an archetype of American schooling but with a 10-year cycle. DepEd reasons that it is high time to adopt a K-12 system, attributing the low achievement scores and poor quality of basic education to the present school setup. Following wide protests over the proposal, the department released its official position defending K-12. 2 â€Å"We need to add two years to our basic education, those who can afford pay up to fourteen years of schooling before university. Thus, their children are getting into the best universities and the best jobs after graduation. I want at least 12 years for our public school children to give them an even chance at succeeding. † quoted from the statement of His Excellency President Benigno S. Aquino III. K-12 has been met with criticism from youth and student groups, teachers, parents and the academic community. The DepEd, for its part, appears determined to enact the program with its proposed budget catering mostly to preparing the grounds for its eventual implementation. The DepEd argues that the K-12 program will be the solution to yearly basic education woes and the deteriorating quality of education. Critics, however, counteract that the education crisis needs to be addressed more fundamentally and adding more school years would only exacerbate the situation. With the proposed policy K-12 program, various arguments and criticisms were formulated. Different conditions generate different assumptions, which in turn create different policies. The success of any policy depends on the correctness of its policy assumptions. 3 Taking this fact into consideration, questions take place, should policy assumptions be made based on current realities? Or should policy be based on policy conditions as expected to happen, but which may not exist by the time the policy implementation was started? The below mentioned problems are just some of the queries where necessary answers are in need to be sought in order to satisfy uncertainties with regards to the implementation of this educational changes provided in K-12 Policy. PROBLEMS 1. What is the status of the country’s educational resources as to: * teaching force; * facilities and equipments; * learning materials; and * budget? ; 2. What are the provisions of the policy to the following direct entities? * family; * manpower;? and instructional apparatus**? ; 3. What is the level of preparedness of the concerned implementing stakeholders e. g. DepEd, CHED as to the execution of this educational reformation? and 4. What is the level of acceptance of the following affected stakeholders: * teaching staff; * parents; and * students? 5. What is the level of capability of the following affected stakeholders? * teaching staff; * parents; and students? OBJECTIVES The formulation of policy for the K+12 Education System requires rigorous systems analysis. Many patchworks of issues, opinions and statistical analysis have already been presented by so many sectors in so many meetings and consultations. But what is more important to see now is the entire picture, the whole tapestry of Cause-Effects and Costs-Benefits that the policy, if adopted, will create. The following are the main objectives of the K-12 policy as stated in their guiding principles4: 1. To enhance the curriculum of the Enhanced K+12 Basic Education Program as the central focus. The curriculum enhancement will be designed in line with the desired competencies and skills of a K+12 graduate. The Department of Education will constitute a body to review the current basic education curriculum and detail the implementation plan. 2. To develop tracks based on different competencies and/or student interest as an integral component of the program. Basic education program should develop tracks based on competencies to meet the country’s varied human capital requirements, and to prepare students for productive endeavor. The SHS curriculum will offer areas of specialization or electives. 3. To enhance the basic education curriculum being undertaken hand in hand with the vigorous efforts to ensure adequacy of inputs as part of the bigger basic education reform,  Expanding the education program (additional years of schooling) will be pursued mindful of the need to address the input shortages – teachers, classrooms, desks, water and sanitation, and quality textbooks. DepEd already included a provision for substantial physical requirements for 2011 budget, and is looking to introduce in subsequent years a budget that will constitute a significant increase not just in nominal terms but also in real terms. 4. To alter change in two-fold: curriculum enhancement and transition management. The intention of K+12 is not merely to add two years of schooling but more importantly, to enhance the basic education curriculum. DepEd is preparing a carefully sequenced implementation plan to ensure smooth transition with the least disruption. 5. To have an open and consultative process to be adopted in the promotion of the Enhanced K+12 Basic Education Program. In accordance with the â€Å"Tao ang Boss† principle, an open and consultative process will be adopted to ensure the successful development and implementation of the K+12 program. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. Many of us believe that in order for a person to achieve his success, he must have a good background in education and the attitude of a survivor. A great education begins with the desire to learn (Osterberg, 2004). Education is important in everybody. It gives us knowledge about the world around us, strengthens our perspective in life and helps build opinions and have points of view in everything about life. Education is really important in bringing our dreams to reality. It opens up doors to every opportunity that would give success in one’s life (Oak, 2010). In our country’s case, the Philippine government offers only 10 years in basic education (6 years for elementary and 4 for high school years), which is the lowest as compared to 12 years in many countries in the world (PCER, 1999). The poor mastery of lessons is common due to the congested curriculum and to the great number of population in public schools. High school graduates of 10-year basic education curriculum are also believed to lack basic competencies and maturity. They cannot legally enter into contracts and are not emotionally mature for entrepreneurship / employment (DepEd, 2010). According to the National Framework Plan for ICTs in Basic Education (2010), the poor performance of students across our country shown in recent national and international achievement tests, and the great number of dropouts both in elementary and secondary levels, pushes the government to add 2 more years in the basic education curriculum or also termed as the K+12 education program. The K+12 program means Kindergarten and the 12 years of elementary and secondary levels. Kindergarten refers to the 5-year old cohort that takes a standardized kinder curriculum. Elementary education refers to primary  schooling that involves six or seven years of education. Secondary education refers to high school (DepEd, 2010). According to the official gazette by the Department of Education (DepED, 2010), the model that is currently being proposed by DepEd is the K-6-4-2 Model. This model involves Kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of junior high school (Grades 7 to 10) and two years of senior high school (Grades 11 to 12). The two years of senior high school intend to provide time for students to consolidate acquired academic skills and competencies. By the time that the issue in K+12 program was once again brought up to public, there has been lots of comments and opinions made by those who agree and disagree about it. The pro-K+12 said that the need for enhancement of the quality of education is urgent and critical and that the congested curriculum only burdens the students by the time they pursue their tertiary level. The government also stated that by adding two more years in our curriculum would increase the GDP growth by 2%. While those who disagree said that the families would have to shell more money for transportation, food and education of their children. Many have also stated that the government does not have the money to spend for another two years in education since it does not have the money to fully support today’s ten years (Cruz, 2010). METHODOLOGY The paper presented elucidates what the K-12 policy is all about, the rationale of formulating it, the target stakeholders and beneficiaries. Further, it tackles also the current situation and the adaptation scenario as it was going to be implemented this coming school year. Various facts, criticisms and assumptions from different reliable sources were asserted in order to substantiate details needed for the best understanding. The presenters wanted to obtain information as to the queries being questioned in the above stated problems in order to have a bird’s eye view to the content and specifications of the said policy. Since the policy is soon to be implemented, the discussion presented is more on the assessment of the provisions and guidelines stipulated in the educational reform in relation to the affected stakeholders. The come up of the following options were based from the personal assessments from the presenters out from the ideas and thorough discussions gained from the varied reliable sources. Further, some contents of this part contain documentation of issues and problems base from the current news and information cited from different reliable sources. Moreover, the views and opinions of the presenters do not necessarily reflect the contents or discussion of the neither class nor stand point of the subject instructor, thus all the generated opinions are purely coming from the presenters. 1. Eradicate and impede the implementation of the policy. Constraints and limitations are highly contradicting the concerned K-12 policy, not to mention the unwillingness to embrace the pro’s and con’s brought by this. 2. Suspend the realization of the policy and reschedule for the next succeeding years. Government and direct implementing agency are not well prepared for the changes to be incurred. Further trainings and seminars, strengthening of the workforce are hereby in need as well as deep penetration to the students and parents for the better understanding and acceptance. 3. Put into practice the K-12 policy this coming school year. The country needs to improve the standard of the educational system in order to keep in line with the paces the other country is pacing. The long term outcome of the said implementation would serve as a positive outcome that will uplift the morale of the society thus bringing noticeable growth to the citizens specifically and to the country as a whole. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 1st Option: Eradicate and impede the implementation of the policy. It is remarkable and inspiring to see that Philippines is now progressing economically and as such, to sustain and possibly prolong this stream, targeting the Education sector of the country is a must. But, unpreparedness, poor educational participation and development will surely yield to negative outcomes. The biggest issues the K-12 Education System must address are its requirement educational inputs and processes. If these are not given solution, the K-12 Education System policy is already ruined from the very start. In view of Sarah Katrina Maramag’s idea, â€Å"the crisis of the Philippine education system, in all levels, is stemmed not on the superficial, in this case the number of schooling years, but rather on the conditions and foundation on which it subsists. Unless the government addresses in earnest poor public spending, high costs of schooling, the predominance of a colonial curriculum, lack of transparency and accountability amid widespread corruption within the sector and the development of the country’s science and technology for domestic development, all efforts will remain on the surface and neither 10 nor 12 years would make much of difference. † To relate with the statement of President PNOY â€Å"to achieve something out of this move to K-12, we need to have a realistic set of plans† and reality check, the plan doesn’t coincide as to the current situation. Though implementing K-12 would be possible, these paradigm changes would be harder for the public system for them to cope up with the rapid changes. Why? Let us settle to the article of Junifen F. Gauuan, firstly, the budget for the education sector of the Philippines is, compared to other Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs), relatively low (for example, difference of almost 5% GDP with Malaysia and Brunei – 3. 1% GDP Philippines). Secondly, the infrastructure of the state schools are not conducive enough to admit more students (picture students taking double-shifted school time i.e. 7am-1pm + 1pm-7pm – is that good for students to not meet in a one-off-one-time schedule? OR even cram 50 students in one class? ). To correlate demand and supply, more demand = more supply. With the current shortage of teachers, as claimed by ACT (Alliance of Concerned Teachers) there is no capacity for the public system to admit more students, even more to prolong the year of study. Finally, financial constraints, millions of people in the Philippines (to be exact 23 million under the Asia-Pacific poverty line) are still living below the poverty line. Are those parents belonging to that line can really afford another 2 years extra in education? Ideally, the long term goal which can be brought by the policy is good, but reality wise, the road in reaching the target is under construction, not yet completed thus so far behind. 2nd Option: Suspend the realization of the policy and reschedule for the next succeeding years. It is the belief of some educators that the K+10 Education System failed because it lacked 2 more years of study. We can consider that as one reason. But to the idea of the presenters, the bigger reason why K+10 Education System failed is because of poor educational resources such as classrooms, lack of teachers, facilities and equipment in short budget. Now, though greater budget is allocated to the reform of the educational system in the country but unfortunately what hinders most is the present situation of the affected stakeholders such as parents, students and teachers not to mention the unavailability and lacking of the educational resources. There is a need of empowerment to the part of the teaching force since it is a great change which requires greater understanding and preparation. It can’t be denied the fact that the country has great teachers worth to be proud of, but with the change of educational pattern which they will experience, a further training and seminar is indeed a need for them to be fully equipped. Aside from that, the acceptance of pursuing the reformed educational system must have to start from them since they are considered to be the initial medium that will mediate and enlighten the process of the changes both to the students and the parents. To the part of the parents, it would be a sudden change that will greatly affect their economic standing in terms of the added financial obligations added also the uncertainties and queries about the changes wherein not all of them are aware. Further enrichment for them to have a better understanding about the policy is a must and it will surely take some time. It is a considerable way to enlighten the parents since they are the first in hand who can motivate and guide their children. To the implementing agency, the country cannot attempt a trial and error outcome out of this policy. They must have to consider this not an experimental thing to be tested and evaluated. Beforehand, all of the possible consequences and preparations to counter any of those must be well handled and planned already. An evaluation of the educational resources, a budget plan for the teaching force – a long term plan of all of these including the construction of some additional facilities and equipment must be comprehended. To the part of the presenters, they assumed that those implementing agency are not well interacted to the possible instances that may come up and the way to respond in case any unhanding occurrences will arise. As will as the parents and students, together with the current situation of the country connotes unpreparedness for the implementation of the policy. Pursuing the policy without having some intervention with the direct stakeholders and considering the factors affecting the outcome of the policy would obstruct sustainability. 3rd Option: Put into practice the K-12 policy this coming school year. The government is in to it, the policy was recommended to be implemented, government agencies relating to the educational reform took already an action and somewhat due to the media interaction the society can be said as informed about it. The vision is to uplift the educational standards of the country, the mission is to implement procedures and processes provided in the policy, regardless of all the comments and criticisms since government already spent money for it, then like it or like it very much it should be implemented. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION. Initially, the DepEd justifies the K-12 model by saying that the present short basic education program affects the human development of Filipino students. Ultimately, regardless of whichever â€Å"model†, what the youth and country direly needs is for the development and establishment of an education system that caters to the needs of the Filipino youth and the society in general. Unfortunately, data shows the current situation that the country is facing in terms of the educational system that might obstruct the implementation of the said policy. But then, the policy is soon to be implemented this coming school year. To make a recommendation as to the presented options is a mind boggling duty that the presenters could ever come up. But just to satisfy the means of having this paper the end is, the presenters chose the second option, 2nd Option: Suspend the realization of the policy and reschedule for the next succeeding years. The presenters select option two as the best option not due to the fact that the Philippines is the last country in the region to adopt a K-12 basic educations system because it is not all about the trending basis but checking in accordance to the â€Å"reality†. During the assessment done by the prestigious organization Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), they conclude that the problem about the present curriculum in squeezing 12 years of basic education into just 10 is that students are overloaded with subjects which resulted to poor quality of basic education as reflected in the low achievement scores of Filipino students. International tests results like 2003 TIMSS rank the Philippines 34th out of 38 countries in HS II Math and 43rd out of 46 countries in HS II Science; for grade 4, the Philippines ranked 23rd out of 25 participating countries in both Math and Science. In 2008, even with only the science high schools participating in the Advanced Mathematics category, the Philippines was ranked lowest. This quality of education is reflected in the inadequate preparation of high school graduates for the world of work or entrepreneurship or higher education. It is not the question of teaching force because internationally we can say that the country is equipped of well trained educators capable enough for the learning needed by the students in our country. In fact, teachers in our country are highly demanded and most preferred to be hired and work in other country. But it is the matter of the educational system that we have which is designed to teach a 12-year curriculum, yet it is delivered in just 10 years. Though some criticizing it as a way only to realigned as to what is the trending educational system to must have, then why not follow it if it will sustain the development of the educational system of our country and there is nothing wrong with it. As to the question of the consequences that will be brought by the policy, surely there will be many of those and it’s a part of the changes. Better because the government exists to uplift the standard of education in the country and not just sitting down to their respective offices and waiting what will happen to the future of the students experiencing the current system. The policy exist with provisions of program to be administered for the sustainability of it, thus to relate it with economic hindrances it should be another story that is worth to be reflected and should not serve as a hindrance for the development of one system in our country (education). To reach the development wherein the citizens are wanting, admitting the fact that it couldn’t be happening simultaneously is the first step. But, out of the advantages that can be given by the policy, what is now to be considered as constraint is the time. There is a need to develop to the part of the teaching force, the facilities and the equipments the country presently have, further evaluation and thorough analysis as to the whatever outcome that can be brought by it. Implementing programs that will lead to the positive realization of the policy and usage of media is a help to penetrate the minds of the parents and making them realized the long term output that the policy can give by. In short, a more prepared country is in need for the advancement to incur in the educational system. REFERENCES PDF files: Batomalaque, Antonio. Basic Science Development Program of the Philippines for International Cooperation. University of San Carlos. ; Marinas, Bella and Ditapat, Maria. Philippines: Curriculum and Development. UNESCO International Bureau of Education International Engineering Alliance. The Washington Accord. http://www. washingtonaccord. org/Washington- Accord/FAQ. cfm (Accessed 11 September 2010) Mullis, I. V. S. , Martin, M. O. , Robitaille, D. F. , & Foy, P. (2009). Chestnut Hill, MA. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Advanced 2008. National Center for Education Statistics. Highlights from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 2003. December 2004 Seamo-Innotech. Additional Years in Philippine Basic Education: Rationale and Legal Bases. Presentation to the Department of Education on 25 August 2010. Presentation notes of Dr. Isagani Cruz, 28 September 2010. Articles/ Journals: Jane Uymatiao. Why we need DepEd’s K-12 Program, Sunday, 22 January 2012. Retrived from http://www. thepoc. net/commentaries/14612-why-we-need-depeds-k-12-program. html (Accessed 15 March 2012) Joe Padre. Pros & Cons in the K+12 Basic Education Debate, October 14, 2010. Retrived from http://mlephil. wordpress. com/2010/10/14/pros-cons-of-the-k12-debate/ (Accesed 14 March 2012) Jonathan Plucker. Problems as Possibilities: Problem – based  learningforK-12education. Retrievedfrom http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_hb6470/is_1_22/ai_n28742235/ (Accessed 11 March 2012) Junifen F. Gauuan. K+12 Policy Framework: Pessimistic, Optimistic or Realistic? , March 26, 2011. Retrieved from http://www. aldersgate-college. com/news/high-school/k12-policy-framework-pessimistic-optimistic-or-realistic/ (Accessed 6 March 2012) K-12 Challenge to Philippine Tertiary Education. Retrieved from http://rodrigo75. wordpress. com/2011/04/19/k-12-challenge-to-philippine-tertiary-education/ (Accessed 29 March 2012). Sarah Katrina Maramag. Proposed K12 Basic Education System in the Philippines, Is the K-12 model good for the Philippine Education System? , via Philippine Online Chronicles. Retrived from http://blogwatch. tv/2011/05/proposed-k-12-basic-education-system-in-the-philippines/ (Accessed 10 March 2012) Virnads. K12 in the Philippines: A Reform or Deform. Manila Philippines, June 13, 2011. Retrieved from http://www. allvoices. com/contributed-news/9379822-k12-in-the-philippines-a-reform-or-deform (Accessed 12 March 2012).

Art History Study Notes

Art Hist. Review Ancient Greek Art and Arch. (600 BCE-30 BCE) The Early Classical Period 480-450 BCE 5. 23 KRITIOS BOY Acropolis, Athens 480 BCE -Marble -He is self confident and serious looking -He is a sculpture in the round -The artist is believed to be KRITIOS -The statue has an S-curve to him and is in the contrapposto pose, which is when artists use tension and relaxation around the central axis of the body to increase to muscular tension and enhance the musculature of a body. It is shown here because his weight is all on the left foot, causing his hip to jut out.His right knee is slightly bent and he has a slight drop in his shoulders. -The artist also made a point to have his head slightly turned to hint that the viewer should take in the entirety of the piece. High Classical Period 450-400 BCE 5. 29 ACROPOLIS, ATHENS 447-432 BCE -In the High classical period which only lasted a half-century and set the standards for art and architecture. There was also turmoil between the Sp artans and the Athenians in this time period which was referred to as the Peloponnesian War. -â€Å"Acro† means high and â€Å"polis† means city. The Acropolis of Athens was once considered a fortress and sanctuary but was later turned into a religious and ceremonial centre for Athena the cities patron and protector. -It was destroyed by Persian troops in 480 BCE and was going to be left and a memorial site of ruins but Perikles convinced them to rebuild it. 5. 31 Parthenon, Acropolis Athens 447-432 BCE -KALLIKRATES AND IKTINOS -Pantelic Marble -Has the pediment, frieze, triglyph, metope, architrive, abacus, mechinus and necking -Athens, Corinth and Sparta. Depicted gods and goddesses who they believed were immortal and supernatural -Sanctuaries for gods and goddesses in form of outdoor alters—replaced by temples integrated into natural site -temples decorated with ceramic sculptures -mathematical proportions which artists use to convey structure and order 4:9 r atio 4Ãâ€"2+1 -human values of truth virtue and harmony -High classical period -plain capital -temple dedicated to Athena -stylobate floor columns rest on and stereobate foundation itself -post and lintel system -entasis columns slightly swell in the middle -Doric order plain capitals peace, prosperity and power through the building projects -transport wood, gold, marble and ivory -sculptures celebrate the Greek victory over Persians 5. 32 EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON 447-432 BCE (ATHENS) – High Classical period 450-400 BCE -Sculpture in the round filled both pediments of the Parthenon -illustrated the birth of Athena, fully grown and clad in armor, from the brow of her father Zeus. -The statues from the west pediment are the best preserved of the two. -besides Zeus and the newborn Athena are three goddesses followed by a single reclining male figure who could be Diomysos or Herakles. In the left corner was Helios (sun god) in his horse-drawn chariot rising from the sea an d to the right the moon god Selene descends in her chariot to the sea. -The running female figure in the center is Iris the messenger of the gods. P. G. 134 SPEAR BEARER (DORYPHOROS) 450-440 BCE (NAPLES) -POLYKLEITOS -Marble -developed canon of proportions system of measurement used to determine the proportions of the body -contropposto pose is balance and counterbalance one foot bearing weight and one not bearing the weight.In this case his right foot is the one bearing all the weight of his body while the left foot is relaxed. -It is said to be the hero Achilles -Theorists believed that the basic unit was the length of the figures index finger or the width of the figures hand across the knuckles; others think it was the height of the head from chin to hairline. -S-curve -High classical period -spear bearer, idealized, exaggerated The Late Classical Period 400-323 BCE 5. 46 MAN SCRAPING HIMSELF (APOXYOMENOS) 350-325 (VATICAN) -LYSIPPOS -Marble sculpture -Done in the late classical period male nude athlete, which is a typical Classical subject -This is a sculpture in the round that depicts a young athlete after his workout removing dirt and oil from his body with a tool called a strigil. -Has a different canon of proportions than The Spear Bearer. -His head is smaller in proportion to The Spear Bearer and his legs are spread further apart to counterbalance his outstretched arms. -There is a pronounced S-curve to his posture. -The arms break free into the surrounding space inviting the viewer to take in the entirety of the piece. The Early Roman Empire 27 BCE-96 CE P. G. 76-177 ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE 13-9 BCE -Ancient roman art -Dedicated to Augustus’ triumphant return from the capital after three years of establishing Roman rule in Gaul and Hispania. -It was aligned with a giant sundial. -it contained propoganda of portraiture and allegory, religion and polotics and the private and the public. -on the inside of the alter there are foliate garlands suspended in swags from ox skulls, which symbolize sacrificial offering at the alter during annual commemorations and garlands signify the continuing peace and prosperity brought to the Roman world by Augustae. Augustae’s Imperial Family is depicted on the south side of the Ara Pacis and represent his extended family, possibly Marcus Agrippa (far left) who might have been his successor. The child pulling at Agrippa’s robe is possibly Agrippa’s son Gaius Caesar. The women next to Agrippa on the right may be Augustus’ wife, Livia who grasps her younger sons hand (Germanicus) who is in beside Tiberius (the next emporer). Behind Tiberius is Antonia, Augusts’ niece who looks at her husband Drusus (Livia’s younger son). -Pax Romana — Roman Peace -pointifex maximus—high priest 6. 34 & 6. 5 FLAVION AMPITHEATER (COLOSSEUM) 70-80 CE (ROME) -Tuscan bottom -Ionic middle -Corinthian on top -It was called the colosseum because the statue of Nero call ed the colossus stood next to it. -seating was by rank lower the rank higher you sat -Early Roman Empire -Flavion dynasty -begun under Vespasian finished under Titus -soldiers would fight animals -tiered seating with good sight lines from where you sit. -Top level covered by and onning -top story in referred to as attic -cartouche —shield shaped ornaments -look at Roman arches High Imperial Art of Trajan and Hadrian 6. 38 MODEL OF IMPERIAL ROME 324 CEColosseum, Temple of Venus and Rome, Arch of Titus, Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, Rorum of Vespasian, Forum of Augustus, Forum of Julius Ceasar, Rostrum, Forum of Trajan, Basilica Ulpia, Colmn of Trajan, Patheon. 6. 45 THE PANTHEON 118-128 CE (ROME) -It was built for the â€Å"all the gods† -built by Marcus Agrippa son in law of Augustus -it has a giant rotunda surmounted by a huge, bowl-shaped dome. -the oculus that allows light into the rotunda building shows a pattern-like formation when looking up at the coffe rs in the dome’s ceiling. -Corinthian columns -optimus is a skylight or opening in dome corticoid of columns -Exadraie niche for the statues rectilinear and rounded arches -made out of brick and concrete (powdered lime, small rocks, pebbles, rubble) -produced during high imperial period -Hadrian oversaw building of this he admired Greek art and arch. -podium or steps in front of building that lead to porch -Rotunda and dome -Pantheon means all the gods Early Christian Art P. G. 228 OLD ST. PETER’S BASILICA 320-327 (ROME) -It is a longitudinal-plan churches are characterized by a forecourt, the atrium, leading to an entrance porch, the narthex, which spans one of the building’s short ends. The nave can be lit by windows along its upper level just under the clerestories, called a clerestory above the aisles roof. -At the opposite end of the nave from the narthex is a semicircular projection, the apse, which functions as the building’s focal point where the alter, raised on a platform. -plan is known as the Latin cross CHURCH OF SANTA COSTANZA 350 (ROME) -This church is a central-plan church, which were first used by the Christians. -Central planned churches have an atrium, a narthex, and an apse. It has a central more vertical axis from the center up through the dome, which may have functioned as a symbolic â€Å"vault of heaven†. 7. 15 ORATORY OF GALLA PLACIDIA 425-426 (RAVENNA) -It is one of the earliest surviving Christian structures in Ravenna is an oratory, which is a small chapel). -Its named after Honorius’ half-sister Galla Placidia. -Galla Placidia was the daughter of Western Roman Emperor, the wife of a Gothic King and the mother of Emperor Valentinian. -This small building is cruciform, which means cross-shaped. -Each arm is covered with a Barrel vault and a pendentive dome covers the square base at its center. it is designed to make you feel as though you are walking from the real world to the supernatural wo rld as you walk into the interior of the church. -the upper walls are filled with standing apostles, gesturing like orators. Eternal life in heaven is symbolized by doves flanking a small fountain between the apostles. -The Marter caries a cross over his shoulder like a trophy gesturing towards the fire-engulfed grill he was roasted on martyrdom. The Gospels are to the left signifying the faith for which he gave his life. 7. 16 THE GOOD SHEPARD 425-426 (RAVENNA) Jesus is an adult emperor wearing purple and gold royal robes. He wears a golden halo and carries a golden staff that ends in a cross to represent his imperial majesty. -Christianity was the official state of religion for the 45 years this is why the artist chose to depict Jesus in the mosaic. Early Byzantine Art 7. 17 CHURCH OF HAGIA SOPHIA 532-537 (ISTANBUL) -ANTHEMIUS OF TRALLES AND ISIDORUS OF MILETUS -means Holy Wisdom -It was rebuilt after a devastating revolt that killed 30,000 people set fire to the old church burnin g it to the ground. -Anthemius and Miletus rebuilt the church in just 5 years longitudinal and central architectural planning -flanking conches-semi domes-extend the extend central space into longitudinal nave with the narthex on one end and the half dome of the sanctuary apse on the other. The core called the naos is flanked by side isles and galleries overlooking the naos. 7. 20 CHURCH OF SAN VITALE 520 (RAVENNA) -Ecclesius bishop of Ravenna commissioned two new churched one for the port and one the city. -A martyrium is a church built over a grave was dedicated to 4th-century Roman martyr St. Vitalis in the 520’s -central domed octogon with circular rooms flanking the apse. the church and palace are joined by a separate oval narthex and access to second floor gallery. -It has a double set of doors leading into the church. 7. 21-7. 22 CHRIST ENTHRONED, FLANKED BY ANGELS, ST. VITALIS AND BISHOP ECCLESIUS 547 ( RAVEENA) -Early Byzantine Art -Christ is flanked by St. Vitalis a nd Bishop Ecclesius. -Christ appears dressed in imperial purple and enthroned on an orb of paradise, which is evident because of the 4 rivers that flow beneath him. -two winged angels flank him, like imperial bodyguards or attendants. -Christ holds a scroll with 7 seals at his Second Coming at the end of time. he offers a crown to martyrdom (far left) labeled by St. Vitalis. -Bishop Eucclesius holds a model of the church offering it to Christ. 7. 23 EMPEROR JUSTINIAN AND HIS ATTENDANTS, NORTH WALL OF APSE 547 (RAVENNA) -Early Byzantine Art -Justinian carries a large golden paten that will be used to hold the Eucharitic Host and stands beside Maximianus, who holds a gold jewel encrusted cross. The priests to the right hold carry the Gospels, in a golden jeweled book that symbolizes the coming of Word, and a censer with burning incense to purify. 7. 24 EMPRESS THEODORA AND HER ATTENDANTS, SOUTH WALL OF THE APSE 547 (RAVENNA) -Early Byzantine Art Theodora wears a golden halo and elabor ate crown while she stands under a fluted shell canopy, she carries a jeweled golden chalice. -The rulers present these gifts as offerings to Christ -At the bottom of Theodora’s cloak the three Magi who brought gifts to Jesus are depicted. -Revolves around themes of offering -They stand beside a fountain and the open doorway and curtain are space-creating devices. 7. 35 CHRIST PANTOKRATOR AT CREST OF CENTRAL DOME, WITH SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF CHRIST IN THE PENDENIVES, (GREECE) LATE 11TH CENTURY -Early Byzantine Art The image of the Pantokrator is at the centre of the dome like a divine surveyor. -Christ blesses the segregation with one hand and clutches a massive book in the other. -In the corners piers are four signal life episodes: Annunciation, Nativity, Baptism and Transfiguration. 14. 13 14. 14 PALACE CHAPEL OF CHARLEMAGNE 792-805 (GERMANY) -The Carolingian Empire – Was Charlemagne’s private place of worship. -central octagonal plan with a monumental wester n entrance block. -It used westwork, which is a structure combined with a ground-floor narthex and an upper level throne room that opened onto the chapel interior. It also opened outside into a large walled forecourt. – The core of the chapel is surrounded by and ambulatory and a gallery on the second floor which rises to a clerestory under the dome and above the gallery. -There are Corinthian columns on the gallery level. -This chapel was clearly inspired by Byzantine Architecture with the mosaics and patterned multi-colored stone. 14. 16 SAINT GALL PLAN 817 (SWITZERLAND) -The Carolingian Empire -At the center of the Saint Gall Plan is the cloister, which is an enclosed courtyard which opens all the buildings that are most central to the lives of the monks. the large basilican church to the north of the cloister is where monks would gather for communal prayer throughout the day and night. -on the north side of the church there were public buildings. -the monks living quarter s were off to the southern and eastern sides of the cloister with the dormitory, refectory and work rooms. – the kitchen, brewery and bakery were attached to the refectory and a huge cellar was on the west side. -Along the East edge there is a hospital, cemetery, and an educational center. 14. 24 DOORS OF BISHOP BERWARD 1015 (GERMANY) -Bronze doors are more than 16 feet tall. Ottonian Europe -cast in the lost wax process -the left side depicted scenes from the Hebrew bible and the right was scenes from the new testament. -It depicts life in paradise, the fall, life in the new world and Eve’s children on the left and Promise of Return to Paradise, The passion, Infancy of Jesus and Mary’s child on the right. -all depicted in low relief Romanesque Art : in the Roman manner P. G. 458 THE PILGRIMAGE ROUTES TO SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA -In the 11th and 12th centuries religious pilgrimage became very popular in Western Europe. 15. 7-8 THE ABBEY AT CLUNY 1088-1130 (FRANCE) in the 2nd half of the 11th century there were 200 monks in residence. -The cloister is at the center of the monastic community joining the church with domestic buildings and workshops. -it had elaborately carved capitals and relief sculptures on the piers. -it may have been to direct and inspire the monks thoughts and prayers. -Cluniac monks observed the traditional 8 hours of the Divine Office spread over the day and night. -The church was a basilica with five aisles, double transept with chapels and an ambulatory and radiating chapels around the alter. The nave had a three part elevation -it had pointed arches with Classical ornaments. -there were clerestory windows in each bay and a pointed barrel vault with transverse arches. 15. 9 -10 NAVE, ABBEY CHURCH OF NOTRE-DAME, FONTENAY 1139-1147 – founded by St. Bernard of Clairvaux – no interior decoration because he believed it would be a distraction to the monks – Cistercians led a very austere simple life â₠¬â€œ Romanesque means in the Rome manner – Feudalism lords owned lands loaned to Basils and bellow Basils were Peasants – Building has simplicity, austerity Windows symbolize the holy trinity- father, son and the holy ghost – Cloister is where the monks gathered – Simple geometric plan with a long bay-divided nave, rectangular chapels off the square ended transept arms and a shallow choir. – There are pointed barrel vaults over the nave and pointed arches in the nave arcade and side isle bays. 15. 22 SOUTH PORTAL AND PORCH, SHOWING CHRIST IN MAJESTY, PRIORY CHURCH OF SAINT-PIERRE, MOISSAC 1115 (FRANCE) -Christ in Majesty dominates the tympanum and is a visual of the Second Coming in chapters 4 and 5 of the Revelation. He is enclosed by a mandorla and a halo rings his head -the four winged creatures symbolize the evangelists, Matthew the man, Mark the lion, Luke the ox and John the eagle. -rippling bands may represent waves in the â€Å"sea of clas s like crystal† THE LAST JUDGMENT TYMPANUM AT AUTUN 1120- 1130 (FRANCE) -GISLEBERTUS -Inscription in Latin on Christ -Mary is enthroned as Queen of heaven and St. Peter bellow is shown with the large keys slung over his shoulder as heavenly gatekeeper. -angel pushes the saved into open archway and into heaven another figure stands beside the angel impatiently waiting to be hoisted up as well. cross and scallop shell identify two bottom figures as former pilgrims and will be a factor in their favor at the last judgment. -hell is represented as a Basilica with the devil emerging capturing sinners for eternal torment -he uses a sharp hook to capture luxuria who is the personification for lust. Gothic Art of the 12th and 13th Centuries 16. 6 WEST FACADE, CHARTERS CATHEDRAL 1134-1260 (FRANCE) -dedicated to the virgin Mary its main treasure is a piece of cloth said to have been worn by the Virgin Mary when she gave birth to Jesus. -It was a gift from Byzantine Empress Irene to Charl emagne surrounding the three doors is the Royal Portal used for important ceremonial entrances -the middle tympanum Christ enthroned in majesty returns at the end of time surrounded by 4 evangelists. The apostles in 4 groups of 3 fill the litel while 24 elders of the Apocalypse line the archivolts. -The right portal is dedicated to the Incarnation and shows Mary in the early life of Christ -in the left portal is the Ascension where Jesus floats up in a cloud supported by angels. -On the top of the three portals Jesus’ life on earth is depicted in a series of narrative scenes. Kings, Queens and prophets from the Hebrew bible are what give the Royal Portal its name. 16. 10-11 NAVE & PLAN,CHARTERS CATHEDRAL 1194 (FRANCE) -Romanesque pilgrimage plan -became typical Gothic structure -it used pointed arches, ribbed groin vaults and flying buttresses. -upper level was now a triform rather than a gallery -the large clerestory windows are formed with lancets that have small circular r ose windows done by plate tracery-holes cut in wall replaced with stained glass 16. 12 THE GOOD SAMARITAN WINDOW 1200-1210 (CHARTERS CATHEDRAL) -On sin and salvation and is Gothic narrative art -Jesus told his followers to teach a moral truth it is a parody for Jesus’ redemption for humanity’s sins -Adam and Eve’s fall introduce sin into the world and Christ rescues humanity from sin -figures characterize gothic figures because of their dancelike postures 16. 13 ROSE WINDOW AND LANCETS (CHARTERS CATHEDRAL FRANCE) 1230-1235 -quatrefoils are four lobed designs within the rose itself – The North Rose and its five lancet windows were a gift from Queen Blanche of Castille in 1230. -The rose window depicts the Glorification of the Virgin: Virgin and Child surrounded by doves and angels, then Old Testament kings and Old Testament prophets. Lancets, from left to right: Melchizadek and King Saul; King David and King Jeroboam; St Anne and the infant Mary with the a rms of the Royal House of France; King Solomon and King Nebuchadezzar; Aaron and Pharaoh. 16. 14-17 THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE-DAME IN REIMS 1211-1428 (FRANCE) -finished under Philip the Fair -five master masons directed the work over a century. -Mary is featured in the central portal, because of the growing popularity of her cult. -Christ crowns her as queen of heaven in the central gable. -â€Å"the gallery of kinds is the only horizontal element of the facade.WEST FACADE -It depicts Visitation and Mary on the left and Elizabeth pregnant with St. John the Baptist on the right. -the figures are in contrapposto pose because their weight is shifted to one foot as they turn towards each other. -Villard highlighted an innovation that was the development of bar tracery, where thin stone bars called mullions are inserted into the wall to form a lacy framework for the stained glass. 16. 31-32 PULPIT 1260 (ITALY) -NCOLA PISANO – Corinthian columns -elevated and are carved in design of animals -gothic trefoil arch and 6 sided pulpit enunciation angle of Gabriel announces that Mary is pregnant with Christ -classical and naturalistic style -New Testament Subjects -Each panel narrates several continuous scenes such as : Annunciation, Nativity and Adoration of the Shepherds. 16. 33 NATIVITY 1302-1310 (PISA) -GIOVANNI PISANO – deeply carved setting -Mary gazing at her baby as the midwife below her prepares the bath for the child. -Sheep, shepherds and angels spiral up towards the trees to the right -it is as dynamic as Nicola’s is static. Fourth Century Art in Europe 17. 5 VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED 1280 (FLORENCE) -CIMABUE -tempera and gold on wood panel the Virgin and Child are surrounded by angels and places a row of Hebrew prophets below them. -Mary is depicted in hierarchy and holds Jesus on her lap. – she looks at the viewer while gesturing at her son. -her throne is bronze with enamels and gems inset and provides framework for the figures. H e uses thin gold lines to highlight the drapery of the figures to give them a sense of divinity. -he gives naturalistic warmth and dimension to his human figures. 17. 6 VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED 1305-1310 (FLORENCE) -GIOTTO DI BONDONE – tempera and gold on wood panel -painted for the church of Ognissanti figures are in a symmetrical composition and use the hierarchy scale like Cimabue’s Virgin and Child Enthroned. -Mary takes up a large amount of space and overwhelms her Gothic throne. -the halos also overlap the faces of the figures in the background -she holds her child’s leg instead of pointing to him. -he has created a better sense of dimension compared to Cimabue’s -the angels are foreshortened and project towards us. 17. 7 SCROVEGNI (ARENA) CHAPEL 1305-1306 (PADUA) -GIOTTO DI BONDONE -fresco -he covered the entrance wall with The Last Judgment and the sanctuary wall with 3 scenes from the life of Christ. The Annunciation spreads over two painted ar chitectural frameworks on either side of the opening to the sanctuary. -below and to the left of this is the scene of Judas getting payment for betraying Jesus and to the right the scene of Visitation where Mary pregnant with God is with Elisabeth who is pregnant with John the Baptist. -Colors complement each other, which is supposed to make the viewers relate them to each other -there is a grisaille which is a painting done in all grays -paint replicated marble and carved medallions on vertical bands -portrait disks float like glowing moons in the blue sky. 17. MARRIAGE AT CANA, RAISING OF LAZARUS, LAMENTATION AND RESURRECTION/NOLI ME TANGERE 1305-06 (PADUA) -GIOTTO DI BONDONE -fresco -scene from Christ’s life -top left Jesus performs his first miracle, at the wedding feast at Cana turning water to wine and the wine-steward sips it. -to the right is the Raising of Lazarus where figures twist in space using gestures they react to the drama by pleading for the help of Jesus. J esus’ eyes are locked on Lazarus. -on the lower left register is Jesus’s followers grieving over his dead body in a circle of grief. Mary holds her dead son and John flings his arms back in despair and hunches over the corps. 7. 9 KISS OF JUDAS SCROVEGNI (ARENA) ITALY 1305-06 -GIOTTO DI BONDONE -fresco – the mark of betrayal that shows the first step to Crucifixion for Jesus. -they are slightly off-center in the foreground. -Judas wears the same outfit as in the scene of payment for his betrayal and looks as though he completely swallows Christ’s body. -faces glare from all directions -Jesus is calm unlike the figures in the rest of the scene. -Peter is seen lunging forward to cut off the ear of a member of the arresting retinue. -The scenes of cloth compress the chaos into the picture as if to protect the viewer.

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Marketing Simulation Report for the Product PirateEye Term Paper

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Economic Geography - Essay Example These include corruption of state officials, poor management of resources, and over dependence on foreign aid, poor government policies, lack of proper education, and lack of good infrastructure. These factors, summed up with the global epidemics of global warming and climate change, lead to underdevelopment in a country. Corruption among state officials is a common phenomenon in many underdeveloped and poor countries. This was the case in Kenya’s Goldenberg Saga in which tax payers’ money was squandered in the name of trading gold and other precious stones. The power that these masterminds possess is derived from their money. These corrupt officials never got any legal punishment. The corrupt officials also fail to deploy development funds to the regions that require them, and instead pocket the biggest portions of it. The result of this greed is the lack of development in the deprived regions and the eventual poverty of the people living in these areas. Another cause of poverty and underdevelopment is the poor management of natural resources and their under-utilization. These resources include earth minerals, water bodies, agricultural land, and sources of energy. There is no much effort in tapping natural resources and using them for development. A case in check is solar power. It was hardly tapped in large amounts to power massive utilities. Instead, underdeveloped countries depended on imported petroleum products for fuel. Oil is expensive and one cannot renew it once it is used up, unlike the natural and cheap solar energy and wind energy. Agricultural land is also not utilized to its fullest. Instead, people are abandoning it and going to look for jobs in the cities, and yet these countries have no food security. Poor government policies are also another reason for underdevelopment. These poor policies fail to address the issues affecting underdeveloped countries. They include misplaced financial

Military Defense Spending Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Military Defense Spending - Research Paper Example It is imperative to reduce the defence expenditure since it has minimal contribution to the economy. The decline in defence allocations will result in lower incomes for firms that operate in this industry. The reduction in defence budgets will lead to reduction of operations in the defence-contracting firms. Consequently, such entities will retrench employees to an extent that suit their income levels since they are profit oriented. The reduction in budgetary allocations will result in merging of firms as they attempt to consolidate their operations to reduce their overheads. The reduction in defence spending will result in contraction of the defence industry. Additionally, the reduction in defence spending will result in reduced foreign earning form this industry. The defence industry has few players. As such, the industry has few buyers and contractors. The main contractors include Lockheed, General Dynamic and Boeing. This implies that the industry is monopolistic and inelastic. T his state is due to the nature of their merchandise. Additionally, the above contracts are shrouded in secrecy due their sensitive nature. Thus, customers in this industry prefer certain contractors. (Burns). Evidently, the market forces that characterize other industries are absent. Thus, the cost of products in this industry is dependent on other factors rather than market forces (Dwivedi 54). Such factors include duration of executing the contract, the sensitivity of the technology and global alliances. The factors that drive prices in this industry are different since arms trade is a sensitive industry monitored globally. As such, governments do not licence many firms in this industry. The state of the current industry has benefits and disadvantages. First, the industry deals in sensitive merchandise hence, most governments prefer to keep the deals confidential. Additionally, proliferation of some of the weapons would lead to destabilization of global peace. Therefore, having fe w firms in this industry helps deal with black-market dealers. Having few firms in this industry implies that the present corporations will always get contracts. This means that there is minimal competition among the firms involved. The American government has made efforts to maintain competition among players in this industry by barring any merger of large defence firms since this would turn the industry into a monopoly. As such, the American government barred proposed unification between Boeing and Lockheed (Krieg). This would have resulted in the unification of the two principal aerospace contractors. The intervention of the American government was timely since these are the two leading firms in the industry. Therefore, allowing such a merger would have eliminated competition in totality (Krieg). Evidently, this sector ought to have additional players to make it more competitive. This applies to the large contracts that require massive capital outlay. However, this does not apply to smaller contracts since numerous firms have the capability to bid for such contracts making it competitive. However, competition does not vary cost of contracts. This is a key feature of this industry that will not change since defence-contracting firms use specialized

The Myths of Marijuana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Myths of Marijuana - Essay Example The purpose of the essay is to shed light on the mystified shell of Marijuana and reinvents its real essence which is absolutely harmful. Moreover, the essay would examine the conditions in which such mystification of Marijuana and its use takes place and reveal the channels and agencies through which the myths of Marijuana are propagated. It is an irony that both the proponents and opponents of marijuana are part of the great debate on the myths of marijuana. Curiously, each side accuses the other of creating myths about marijuana. However, the present essay does not attempt balance between the contesting perspectives on the myths of marijuana, rather, challenges the myths which are favoring marijuana and exposes not only the myths but also the way such myths came to existence. Office of National Drug Control Policy, in the document- 'Marijuana Myths and Facts: The Truth Behind 10 popular misconceptions', points out that 'Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug in the United States' (2005, p.4). The crumbling fact is that Marijuana is the most popular narcotic drug among the majority of illicit drug users. There is a growing number of people in the United States who have at least once used Marijuana. ... Historically speaking, it is important to note that the youth started to become attracted into marijuana by the tumultuous 60s and 70s. The insecurities of modern life in general and the anti-establishment feelings in particular created a kind of social vacuum or a moral anomaly which tempted the people to cut their roots from traditional forms grievance addressable channels such as religious authorities, community organizations and family. On the other hand, the empty promises of a brave new world were thick in the air. The youth who were looking forward to get out of the rotten system found their easy solace in Marijuana along with Beatles and rock music. It all indicates that socio economic conditions play a vital role in the production, distributions and consumption of narcotic drugs in general and marijuana in particular as it has a carefully crafted cultural aura around it. However, the youth of 60s and 70s did not live much with their illusions. The reality was striking and naturally they came out of the grip of marijuana to perceive the reality as reality. In addition, the first time users were mostly above 19 and the potency of the available variety of marijuana was considerably less in 60s and 70s. And, the use of Marijuana was a time bound fashion than a concrete lifestyle. On the contrary, the globalized world in twenty first century is strikingly different in regards to marijuana and its marketing, propaganda, trade routes and use. The "weed" of the so called Woodstock era has paved way for new generation marijuana which is greatly stronger than the old ones. Most strikingly, the first use age is dramatically dropped into 17. In other

Fast food restaurant Essay Example for Free

Fast food restaurant Essay All such food is categorized as fast food which can be prepared and served quickly. Restaurants and kiosks provide fast food with precooked or preheated ingredients and usually served at a packaged form (Pollan, 2009). In the beginning, American hamburger and fries was considered as the traditional fast food but now the field has been widely diversified and food like pizzas, fish and chips, burgers from McDonalds and Kentucky Fried Chicken etc. are all considered fast food. Fast food market has shown an enormous and steady growth. In 2006 alone the market has reached to $102. 4 billion with an annual growth rate of 4. 8% (Adams, 2007). Fast food chains like McDonalds operate in more than 126 countries in six continents having more than 31,000 restaurants globally (Arndt, 2007). Burger King, another worldwide fast food chain, has operations in more than 65 countries of the world; KFC restaurants located over 25 countries, Subways is present in 90 countries with total 39,129 restaurants and so and so forth (Buthrie, Lin Frazao, 2002). However, according to most of researches, fast food is not at all fit for health and can cause serious problems. According to Marion Nestle, Chair of New York University’s Department of Nutrition, Food Studies, and Public Health, â€Å"the increased calories in American diets come from eating more food in general, but especially more of foods high in fat (meat, dairy, fried foods, grain dishes with added fat), sugar (soft drinks, juice drinks, desserts), and salt (snack foods)† (Nestle, 2002; p. 10). This report discusses some positive as well as negative points of taking fast food. Reasons for popularity Before delving into the positive and negative aspects of fast food, it seems appropriate if we discuss the reasons of fast food popularity. The question is what compels the Americans to eat such poorly balanced food? The answer of the question is not simple and involves many factors. First of all, every culture has its own values, philosophies, and the way to react to the things occurring in their lives. These reactions depend upon the culture they belong too. In present family structure and busy life it has been observed that the increasing communication deficit between parents and children has created a gulf between parents and children. This changed life style, especially in low-income and single-parent families, has compelled the children to take unhealthy and junk food more often than required (Ritzer, 2000). Advertising also played a major role in increasing the fast food popularity in America. According to National Cancer Institute, â€Å"Commercial advertisers have learned that a consistent and prominent presence in the marketplace is key to achieving and holding market share† (National Cancer Institute, 2000). Statistics revealed that in 2004 the total expenditure of different food items including fast food restaurants was approximately $11. 26 billion. Fast food advertisers target ethnic minorities directly through their own media outlets and programs. Food items which are advertised for ethnic minorities are usually unbalanced and unhealthy as compared to the food advertised for general audience (Reyes, 2005). Research conducted in 2005 depicted that more than 52 percent of food items advertisement published in Hispanic fashion and social magazines were advertised unhealthy and unbalanced food as compared to 29 percent such advertisements published in general magazines (Duerksen et.al. , 2005). Fast food items advertising usually target children in order to create and establish brand loyalty at an early age (Wiecha et al. , 2006). Among the six brands which have enjoyed very strong recognition in children, four are related to food, i. e. Cheerios, McDonald’s, Pop-Tarts, and Coke (Comiteau, 2003). These companies relied on the fact that the children would emotionally connected to these companies even in their adulthood (Comiteau, 2003). Nevertheless, recent research shows that consumers prefer to buy fast food from supermarkets. Because they have the perception that supermarkets provide healthier food options ( Advertising and marketing very significantly influence the buying behavior of people and the notion cannot be rejected in totality that frequent use of this unhealthy food is a major cause of increasing obesity. According to a study, television advertisements and television viewing is directly associated with popularity of junk food (Bowman et al. , 2004). Advantages of using fast food The basic and most obvious advantage of fast food is its cost and speed. Fast food is very easy and quick to prepare and serve. As discussed above, the number of single parent household is continuously increasing in United States. Such single parents not only have to work to earn a respectable living but also have to prepare food for the family. For such persons fast food is an easy and cost effective solution. Fast food not only prepared at home easily but can also be ordered from fast food restaurants which usually have special offers and deals available to make it cheaper or more cost effective. Fast food comprises and enjoys the biggest chunk of food industry. It has, in United States alone, sale of $120 billion with the help of more than 200,000 restaurants. Fast food industry has been very successful in term of operation expansion by utilizing international franchising. The administration of different fast food companies have learned by the passage of time how to make the most of the sales potential of a fast food franchise by practically adopting an idea by giving it a functional methodology. This is one main cause why fast food franchises have been a symbol of success among the contemporary food businesses. Fast food industry gives minimal wages and financial benefits to their workers (McDonald’s Australia); nevertheless, it provides jobs to approximately 3. 5 million people.

Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Religion Essay

Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Religion Essay (187) In Renaissance Tragedy there is always generally a concluding death-scene, the blooding ending a certainty to happen. The 16th century was a time of growing scepticism about the Christian afterlife and an urgent need for present self-realization. Finding a brave death would satisfy a lasting fame and tragedy offering comfort to a secular world. (188) Doctor Faustus is one of the tragedies of the time with such secular tendencies, the doctor rejecting the Heaven connects it to Luthers renewal of the mystery in afterlife, making death the more inscrutable in its cycles of despair and faith which is inherent in Christian experience. There is a set of formal technique stressing such affinity between the two with the plays ambivalence towards Calvinistic predestination and Faustus recurrent mood-swings as a Lutheran response to inaccessibility of death. Lutherans scepticism regards the possibility of containing philosophical speculation on afterlife in stable pieces of doctrine which for Faustus and Luther ends up in a restless ecstasy of mind. (189) The Calvinist background makes Faustus choice compelled in fear of Gods punishment and yet being unable to repent and the inevitable otherness of the deity and the predestination of human action. Faustus has studied in Wittenberg where both Luther and Calvin taught and his tragic force stems from the destruction of an individual will by the arbitrary power of the Calvinist God. (190) Presently the general view takes Faustus motivation in a balance perspective of both voluntarist and determinist readings. The actual restlessness within the play dangles between the extremes. Faustus is a sceptic; his mind proceeds by the dialectic of doubt and desire to fill the void in his understanding through new dogmatic position while he establishes a balance between competing doctrines. His dissatisfaction with stasis is hardly adequate for his agonized unrepenance in Gods face of wrath. (191) II. The opening scene shows Faustus struggling to know what it cannot. All kinds of knowledge are tossed aside as woefully unsatisfying when he rejects such systems of knowledge. He is acting on a decision he has long considered. His mood abruptly shifts on theology and its central teaching: We must die an everlasting death followed by a sudden feeling of discouragement. The inevitability of death is not banished with confidence and thats why he turns to magic. At first its only his interest in black arts which is to resolve his death anxiety allowing him to behave with cynical abandon. Yet the continuing obsession with death manifests in his talks with Mephistopheles the debates leaving him unwilling to accept the replies he is given. He tacitly admits the existence of Hell insisting to find a fixed location and final determination however to no avail. He finds Hell both present and removed, present in the existence of devils and absent in him not yet dead. (192) Faustus can apprehend but not comprehend what hes confronted with, so he resolves it using his intellectual denial. He is continually encounters Hell by devils and becomes hopeless in such endless revolution, so he decides to be rid of the awareness of hell even though escaping the thought is impossible. He breaks the cycle starting to think about a wife, an earthly object. His scepticism manifests itself in the restless struggle which is rooted in his uncertainty about the supernatural that cannot be comprehended through his earthly vantage. Its a perspective ever beyond his own and also to some extent within Christian theology from Augustine to Calvin and when the basic elements of the afterlife is beyond ones grasp, repentance becomes almost impossible. (193) III. Such was Luthers teaching: confrontation with mortality as a fundamental source of religious experience and his anxieties about death were the basis for his entire theology. According to Heidelberg we by nature love our will more than the will of God. We even hate him and Luther supposes that our nature pushes us to avoid the otherness of death, yet our relation to God demands that we embrace it. We can never be freed from what we are. We are always left wrestling with our imagination. Luthers scepticism about coherence of human perspective is confusing and his belief in God seems dubious. (194) Generally the basis for the ideas of inwardness, plainness, and self-sufficiency are associated with Protestant thought. (195) Eucharist to him is real bread and real wine, where Christs flesh and blood are present while the formers remain still present. He insisted on the real presence of the Godhead as the meeting of two different perspectives: the object of faith, and faith in itself. The first is outside the heart, presented to our eyes, in the blood and wine; and the second in internal not externalized. (196) Luthers theology perceives an epistemological than an ontological difference between the earthly and the divine arguing that the single substance of the Eucharist is at once Christ and bread. The communion is therefore uncertain and destabilising and Luthers ecstasy cannot last permanently for the claim of an unencountered future. To him too much faith is the sign of sinful pride, a comfort which terrifies conscience and the despairing rejection of the divine will struggling with renewed efforts at faith. (197) Eucharist produces a state of incomplete satisfaction as an endless struggle to resolve a feeling of double vision, a mode of representation generating a specific psychological condition. In Luther, it is said that even in our destruction God is present with us, and in our death Christ our King liveth. (198) Luther speaking about death comes to life and comments on the horror of being trampled by death, the cycle of hope and despair Faustus is caught in. His views were not accepted by the Calvinist and the Anglican Church, yet his views on death were circulating in England. (199) Marlowe spent 3 years studying Protestant theology at Cambridge, and Faustus struggled with this uncertainty. His supernatural perspectives generate an awareness of a denied satisfaction attempting to deny the existence of this greater perspective. His final soliloquy is in the same dialectic pattern longing for the perpetual day and meanwhile his soul to be dissolved in elements, desiring to make the afterlife and extension of his earthly perspective and also escaping it entirely. There are baffling reasons for Faustus to keep to his pact. He asks for a description of hell while the answer he receives is dissatisfying. So he shifts the subject to having a wife substituting his questions with a feminized spirit. Mephistopheles explanation of astrology is freshmens supposition and the book of spells seem incomplete to him and he takes a tour to Rome instead of Hell. (200) Faustus denied satisfactions for his earthly boundaries are offered to him through Lutheran readings. Anyhow he knows that everlasting death awaits him and is confronted with the unchangeability of death and thus starts his pattern of avoidance the fact. The pact promises escape from this helpless awareness offering mortality by forging his damnation. Faustus abolishes the perspective existing beyond his own turning godly power to his own or rendering God irrelevant by determining his exact condition of death. In misery loves company Faustus pays more attention to company than misery feeling tormented by his condition. (201) Misery is nothing new to him, but he seeks company and the fellowship with the devil bridges the gap in awareness with which he is burdened. But he sees that the view beyond his is not different than his own vantage-point for devils condition is available to those humans who are in hell. No matter what the perspective the result would be an escape from the feeling of being caught on one side of the double perspective. Faustus is ironically caught in his own perspective for what the devil shows him is the re-exposition of his own view and there is no frame to validate the demons responses. So he keeps twisted back and forth between doubt and certainty with sudden cry of terror without being afraid of dying. (202) He has incessant change of voice referring to himself in first person and his meditations are dialogic dramatized in actual shifts of voice between confidence and doubt. V. Sense of doubleness finally takes Faustus to the extreme of avoidance distracting his mind from revolutions to magical tricks played on the Pope, a pompous knight, and a horse-dealer. These pranks show the adolescent turns in the doctor. (203) His serious and satiric behaviours are both other attempts at avoidance. Unable to get satisfied intellectually he is reduced to practicing magic and mindless games to escape the revolutions of his thoughts. He feels trapped in the double perspective and thus tries to leave it off asking for a wife. Hell is characterized to him as a place for permanent dispute while he is aware of the limits of his understanding and thats why he turns back to earthly diversions to find peace in earthly companionship which is doomed all the same. (204) Bell, Book, and Candle as a parody of Catholicism is also one of Faustus own condition of being caught in endless loop of his thoughts. His interactions with the devils re-enacts the pattern of avoidance that Luther call the fundamental condition of mortality. The pact is an emblem of human state either coming from studies of divinity or concourse with devils. We are left with the knowledge that there exist a knowledge beyond our own, and the more we struggle to establish a satisfactory relation, the more avoid the inevitable limits of our human condition. Thats why Faustus never abandons his pact: to rid himself of it would be meaningless unless freed from humanity. VI. Faustus needs to see past his humanness to find peace of mind always in the beyond. (205) Marlowe fuses two distinct methods of representation, psychological depictions of hell and human suffering, and painted devils making threats of physical torture. Renaissance concern for subtleties of human experiences juxtaposed with medieval emphasis on the stratified order of values. This is an intentional parody which is less sophisticated than Faustus agonized description of his mental strife. At the end of Act II, Lucifer tries to quiet Faustus metaphysical doubts providing Seven Deadly Sins. Faustus finds something satisfying in this allegory of hell more than the psychological description of hell. (206) Luther was traditionally an opponent of allegory believing that the true meaning of the scripture was lying in its literal sense, and his rejection was help both by the Catholic Church and Reform Protestants. The question regards the betterment of one particular allegory to another. Luther lashed out the Catholic church for ignoring the grammatical sense of the Eucharist. (207) Luther insisted upon the literal sense. For him there was never real distinction between the word of God and its earthly sign, they are simply two different ways of looking at the same thing. There is no way of moving from sign to signified and the dual function of the sign is to bring the observer into the real presence of God while at the same time manifesting the infinite gulf of perception that exists between God and mankind. Faustus need to escape unknowing is answered by hell depicted as the collection of earthly forms, knowing that afterlife can be understood in earthly terms and momentarily relieving him from the doubleness. But according to Luther such moments of forced resolution are not truly satisfying. Although Faustus turns to allegory, he remains aware that it doesnt actually bridge the gap. In the allegorical pageant, the certainty quickly turns to doubt, an inscrutability not dislodging his desire to know. The clarity of understanding is quickly rejected as bei ng naive and Faustus struggle leads him to an isolating despair, the cycle of faith and doubt, alternating between allegorical clarity and psychological complexity never to resolve. We are not even sure in the end the doctor will be back with another performance. VII. Dryden suggested that death can sometimes be the stuff of comedy, yet remaining a source of tragic experience all the same. (209) In Faustus there is a sense of doubt and anxiety on death as an incomprehensible phenomenon that logic is not able to soothe. Faustus struggles endlessly against his unknowing, the struggle which indicates nothing but the incompleteness that makes human existence tragic. Theology of Marlowes The Jew of Malta (214) After Faustus, this play is the most ironic one of his works. Jewishness is seen as a moral condition, and Jewish choice was the rejection of Christ, rejecting the treasure in Heaven for the one on the earth. Jesus tells the Jews you are of your father the Devil introducing them as the Antichrist. (215) Yet, the modern anti-Semitism of today cannot be applied to the times of Elizabeth and the image of the Jew at the time was more of a theological necessity than a living person based on his historical image in the Old Testament. According to Medieval law, sexual relations between a Christian and a Jew were met with the penalty of death by fire. The reason is taken as the denial of Christianity rather than racial issues. Shakespeares Shylock and Marlowes Barabas were more of a Medieval image as a word of general abuse bequeathed to the renaissance. Elizabethan England was a country bare of racial Jews and the whole frame rejected racial thinking. (216) The Anglican service was praying for all Jews, Turks, Infidels, and Heretics. According to Hunter, the Jew who falls into the cauldron is the very one in the first Act with no reduction of the authors sympathetic identification with plenty of ironic counter-currents. The structure of the concepts in the play are theological not racial, and the name as a type was fixed unless he ceased to be a Jew. In the beginning Barabas congratulates himself on his Jewish prosperity and Abrams happiness. Yet this is not so in Christianity and Abraham and other old patriarchs of the Old Testament cannot belong to the Jewish one and Jewish invocation of them is merely subversive and alien. There have been numerous treatises trying to remove the Old Testament from the Jews. (217) According to Luther the Jews application of Abrahams blessings are only carnal injuring the Scripture. They may be the children after the flesh, but Christians are the children of the promise, as Isaac was, of grace and faith. Barabas later on does such self-congratulation when he leads Don Lodowick to his doom. (218) It was believed that the promise was the very thing the Gentiles were given. So Barabas self-congratulation seems as the same original choice and his orthodoxy in saying the blessings promised to the Jews is no less that Faustus joy in the paradise of the Seven Deadly Sins. An ironic contrast is made between the figure of Barabas and Job Marlowe citing from the Geneva version of the actual book of Job. (219) The reference to him is central to the whole conception of Barabas. He is an Anti-Job characterized by his choice of revenge and impatience. This way he is also an Antichrist for Job was the greatest of the types of Christ found in the Old Testament, his descent into poverty mirroring Christs into flesh. Barabas career is a parody to Jobs, both beginning in prosperity and then losing their possessions both accused of justifying their deeds, both restoring their prosperity. Their frame of mind is different though. Barabas self-justification is from monstrous egotism and Jobs is out of awareness that God is unanswerably just. Yet the latters voice acquire in the mouth of a revenger the pattern of all patience. The effort of Christian appropriation of Job was to distinguish between the action of a man whose vision of the world was coloured by the awareness of the Redeemer living and the superficially similar action of the man whose vision was limited to this world. (220) Jewish observances are justifications of the mere flesh for their Religion represented earthly wealth, dignity, and prosperity as highly valuable. Barabas is a Jewish Job and the loss of his wealth is a physical disaster, not a spiritual trial. The parody of Jobs spiritual Odyssey and Barabas view to treasure are different from what is recommended in Christianity. Barabas cannot serve both God and riches and the actions the Job denies are those in which Barabas rejoices as an Anti-Job. (221) Judas in Herberts represents such Jewish choice preferring thirty pieces of silver to serving his Lord delighting in avarice. The Jewish usurer was a known contemporary figure in Marlowes days even if absent from England and his wealth represented a kind of spiritual hunger for the infinite. The line of infinite riches in a little room contains in itself the material by which we distance and judge Barabas passion for treasure. In Miss Helen Gardners line also there is the notion of Immensity cloistered in thy dear wombe. (222) There is similarity between the two; Marlowes line draws the persistent image of Christ in the Virgins womb and (223) Such wordings are repeatedly mentioned yet in different words from one text to another. In one same tradition the image expresses the paradox of infinitude in little space stretching before and after Marlowe. In another one Christs power is represented as infinite richness. The Virgins womb is litel space and yet also infinitely rich in monetary sense. The comparison of Christ to jewels, gold, and silver are obviously shown in varied texts. (224) There is a natural transition of Wisdom to the Virgin where she is infinitely rich by possessing Christ, her womb functioning as a purse, mint, or an alms-box. The money is coined in the image of God, being defaced in the womb of the Virgin, the vessel enjoying humility. (225) Thus the double paradox of Marlowes line is already present in a religious tradition, Christianity being opposed to the flesh. The treasure/Christ is there for the use of others and again the contrast between the sterile treasure hoarded by man and the liberal treasure disbursed by God is shown: to ransome great kings from captivity (64-67). But the only king Barabas ransoms is himself while his house is captured and converted into a nunnery, Abigail entering it as a novice to dig up the treasure hidden. The contrasting values are played off: the fruits of the spirit and those of commerce, one against the other. The pun on benefit in the Aside (574-76) is interpreted as benefit to mean: as muchas Hope is hid (577). (226) When Barabs teases the Governors son to his death he talks of the nuns and friars as still doing it reape some fruit; in fulnesse of perfection (833-48). The variety of innuendos suggest the lechery of the nuns and friars with the fruit of bastardy playing on the idea of profit, spiritual, and financial. The austere life of Abigail leads to profit, by repaying the debt to God for her sinful past. Behind is the theory of monastic deprivation to appease Gods wrath by giving vicarious satisfaction. The nunnery in Barabas house is still a place of profit and Marlowes play on thesaurus is justified by the monetary and financial imagery of the churchs power. (227) The vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience which the nuns have taken are works of supererogation (duty done more than expected) and the profit they produce is part of Marlowes treasure though not the kind Barabas is interested in. The doctrine of a surplusage of merits is what lies behind the practice of selling Indulgences specifically talked about in thirty-nine articles as abhorrent to the Anglican Church, one of the most noxious (poisonous) of Roman belief. The final twist of the ironic point is in Barabas instruction to his daughter (585-98). (228) The resurrection is not a spiritual one; the profit is judged after the flesh. In (663-69) there is no wooden enactment of predetermined attitude, but a continuous fluctuation of sympathy backwards and forwards round the figure of Barabas while his religious status is never in doubt who fatally mistakes the nature of value functioning as the medieval emissaries of Hell, taking us with him in his scorn of the other characters in the play. The Jew is admired in a way different from Faustus. He is place among Christians with the profession of policy, nuns of dubious chastity, and friars with timid carnality; the Christianity itself is not attacked and neither is Jewishness approved. In Marlowes time Malta was being menaced by Turkish attacks, and such struggle was not between nations, but between faiths, God and the devil. Such prayers were commonly said in England in 1565. (229) Marlowe was referring to cut and dried moral issues by choosing Malta as the setting of his play. The Knights of Malta were no ordinary soldiers, but monastic ones vowed to poverty, chastity, and obedience. He chose his men to raise expectations of rectitude while his view of man was that of a fallen condition. The Christians are shown in a variety of cynical variations and inversions and the idealistic rhetoric of honour and piety is only a window-dressing with the reality of greed that the wind that bloweth all the world besides, / Desire of gold (1422). The international relations are based on money or illusion and Malta buys its peace from the Turks while the occation of the Turks coming to the island is to sell Grecians, Turks, and Africk Moores. The only tangible sign of honour in Del Boscos words is: Ile write unto his Majesty for ayd, (745) which is never materialized and finally scoffed at by Calymath. (230)Everyone has its price and Barabas presumes that it is a trade to purchase townes / By treachery, sellem by deceit (2330). The difference between a monarch and a thief is only a matter of degrees. Such a world is devoted to greed and Barabas in his self-interest is perfectly adapted to his environment while still standing aside others. Their conflict is a tiresome interruption in the real life of profit-making so that they would spare me, my daughter, and my wealth (189-92). At a personal he is in conflict with Christians and thus makes a common cause with Ithamore as an individual Turk: both villaines, / Both circumcised, we both hate Christians (978-80). His hatred to Christians is merely a reduplication of the Turkish hostility. In Act V it is more profitable to sell the Turks than the Christians for the latter is currently living the Authority (2139-41). The Turks and Christians both are inconsistent in their self-interest; but Barabas allows neither race, blood, faith, nor grandeur stand in his consistent monomania. (231) He is free from idealism or dependence upon others and the degree of admiration and sympathy shown in borne to better chance, / And framd of finer mold then common men (452) is a counterpoint over religious condemnation. The fate of Malta is a mere transaction but does not obliterate the importance of the orthodox view, that self-interest is self-destroying, and Barabas lines are a rhetorical progression of ever-narrowing range (189-192). The lines show a preference for private security in a Jewish alien. But there is not a whole progression where the daughter first is assimilated to gold and later is destroyed. Abigail is fraught with ironic overtones. In the Helen speech of Faustus the image of Semele as here Agamemnon was responsible for the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. (232) Barabas looks to the future in terms of gold (the barren breed of metal) (701-4) and the purchase of Ithamore in the slave-market is set against the sale of diamond Abigail to Lodowick (899) with cross-reference to real finance (983-1011). Abigail is both seen as gold and human investment and is drawn from circulation when necessary substituted by Ithamore. (1312-1344). (233) The trinity of me, my daughter, and my wealth is reduced to me and my wealth. Ithamore is also a tool and the descent from Abigail to Ithamore is through the ever-diminishing circles of personal freedom into depths of pettier criminality where the cut-purse and courtesan natural inhabitants. Such structure of decline takes place in Faustus, too. Both heroes begin with splendid assertions of individual will and in Act II and IV are carried to low-life clowning and frustrations. Yet Faustus ends splendidly while the Jews fate is not redeemed by a denouement and his psychological conditions are not discussed. Barabas temporarily defeats his enemies by pretending to die. Yet the Antichrist is not easily excluded. He returns through the towns sewers as a coup de theatre (a sudden event), a reminder of medieval pageants inheriting moral as well as physical structures, with the Heaven high up and the Hell underneath in the pit or the cauldron. (234) On such occasions as those of Barabas the cauldron could represent the traditional image of hell which was derived from the final chapters of Job where Behemoth and Leviathan both were pictured in details as hell-mouth of fearful monsters., a boiling cauldron was imagined in the open jaws of the monster. (235) Sometimes the cauldron represents hell itself, and sometimes it is a part of the setting. Definitely in Barabas end there are inevitable moral concerns with the final victory of Christians in Malta. Yet, Marlowe avoids the collateral Second Coming of Christ and the survival of the Christians has no moral justification. In fact Marlowe has damned the Jew as a means of tormenting and exposing those who pride themselves on their Christianity. The arguments of the Governor are like those of Peter the Venerable urging the Jews to be forced to contribute to the cost of the Second Crusade. (236) At the time all wars against the Turkish infidels were seen as Crusades and the situation of Malta was the extension of the one that Peter Venerable was writing about. Marlowe implies that Barabas is against the Christ, yet his trial is conducted by figures that approximate to Pilate and Chief Priest (331). Profession in the play means religious faith. (237) Barabas makes the Christian point that righteousness is not a tribal or racial possession, but an individual covenant (346-350). Therefore he has the right to live and prosper in this world and in terms of the Old Testament he seems to be justified. His extension of legal status in Malta to a religiously legality under the terms of the Jewish law, yet, does not fit in, with his claim to a personal covenant. (238) The righteousness in Barabas speech is a distinct and antithetical concept to that of the New Testament and a Christian audience is expected to reject Barabas defence. In (351-355) profession means Jewish faith and for the Jew to claim individual covenant is a contradiction in terms. Barabas as the figure of Job attempts at futile self-justification and as an Anti-Job figure resorts to Machiavellian cunning (507). The last two line of the Governor (356) show that more than doctrinal correctness is involved. (239) Marlowe in saying all they that love not Tobacco and Boie were fooles? And to what? Such a statement is effective because of its power to upset our preconception, but it does not lead to anywhere. Marlowe identified himself with the rebels: Tamburlaine, Barabas, Faustus, and Edward II, but that such identification blinded him to the immutable laws of God, society is improbable. His Cambridge background and social contacts suggest his contact with Calvinism and the strongest emotional effects in the writings of the reformers usually come from their sense of Gods infinite transcendence, and mans infinite debasement (Tamburlaine, 2893-2911). The speaker is passionately involvement with the idea of Gods purity and transcendence and the betrayal of that purity in human nature. (240) He knew what it was like to worship transcendence, the power, and beauty beyond human comprehension. He was a God-haunted atheist being simultaneously fascinated and horrified by the self-sufficiency of the fallen world. We come to prefer the Jewish profession of Barabas to the hypocrisy of the Christians with Marlowe belabouring the Christians. The world of Marlowe is completely a fallen one and so is the world of Calvin. The Spirit and the Letter: Marlowes Tamburlaine and Elizabethan Religious Radicalism (125) Having conquered Babylon and outside the ruins of the city Tamburlaine asks about the Islamic holy books: Now CasaneThey shal be burnt (2 Tam. 5.1.173-76). He realized the futility of respecting anything but his own divinity. He taunts Mahomet in (2 Tam. 5.1.180-81) and identifies himself as the scourge of another higher God. (126) To him Spirit is bound by nothing unlike Mahomet whose sum of religion rests in the Koran (2 Tam. 5.1.191). He disdains religion codified in books and the letter of the law means nothing for he possesses a divine spirit throwing off his shepherds weeds to reveal the armour beneath persuading everyone he is not of flesh and blood subject to laws. Marlowe comments on issues of gnosis and inner enlightenment and the conflict between the spirit and the letter. Here the Koran is substituted for the Christian Scriptures and he is addressing Christian theology in transferring the defiant gesture to the distant world of Islam. In Tamburlaine the possession of a spiritual gnosis leads to a disregard for all laws where others are governed bodily by it. At the time the issues of election and predestination were hotly debated and there were an increasing number of people seeking unmediated contact with God from religious authorities or doctrinal codes. Marlowes plays are a part of a larger cultural exploration of the significance of individual religious inspiration and the consequences of such inspiration for the body politic. (127) Marlowes plays indicate a sceptical attitude towards Gnostic transcendence. He offers a critical portrait of spiritual confidence gone mad and facilitates us with the perception of tensions in English Reformation thought. II. There is a Gnostic subtext in Marlowes plays as well as the presentation of anti-materialism. (128) As the opponents of the Gnostics, the early Church Fathers intended their work as a cautious displaying of heresy focusing their attention excessive, outlandish belief and practices. Gnosticism is a negative religio-philosophical movement escaping from the tragic farce of material existence, loathing the body and material register as a central feature like many ancient philosophies. But in Neoplatonic circles, the theory of divine emanations proclaimed earthly things to bear the reflection of the divine. In Gnostic thought the material world is not even the creation of the true God; rather its the work of an inferior god, himself the result of an error in the divine realm. (129) The one, unknowable God causes distinct divine beings to appear, each representing one of his attribute. The materials of creation stem from a tragic sense of loss, abandonment, and perplexity. For the Gnostics the creation of the world is a tragedy. Nothing valuable inheres in the qualities and characters of materiality. To exist on earth signifies the depth of ones removal from the perfection and tranquillity of the divine. The Gnostics can overcome the overwhelming alienation of life on earth through the attainment of gnosis, the recognition of ones true origin the essence of gnosis is knowing that the ones true self is divine and body and the world are impediments to ones transcendental ascent. (130) Gnostic thinkers believe that only a few individuals possess the pieces of divinity. People are divided into three categories: pneumatics (spirituals), psychics, and hylics, ones status being pr